40 Treatment of materials by forming nanostructures comprising metals, metal oxides, and other materials on substrates or object comprising metals, metal alloys, semiconductor materials, ceramics, glass, fabrics, paper, fibers, plastics, polymers, and other materials; forming alloys by infusing ions of metals into substrates or objects comprising other metals; and applying coatings comprising metals or metal oxides on objects comprising metals, metal alloys, and other materials on substrates or objects comprising metals, metal alloys, semiconductor materials, ceramics, glass, fabrics, paper, fibers, plastics, polymers, and other materials